Complete Guide to K-12 Education in the United States
Comprehensive overview of elementary and secondary education, from enrollment statistics to school choice programs
49.5M
Public School Students
PreK-12 enrollment (2023-24)
130,000+
Total Schools
Public and private schools nationwide
3.2M
Teachers
Full-time equivalent public school teachers
15:1
Student-Teacher Ratio
National average for public schools
📊 K-12 Education Overview
K-12 education in the United States encompasses kindergarten through 12th grade, serving approximately 54.1 million students across public, charter, private, and homeschool settings. The system includes over 130,000 schools nationwide, employing 3.7 million teachers and education professionals.
- Public Schools: 49.5 million students (80% of total)
- Public Charter Schools: 3.8 million students (7% of total)
- Private Schools: 4.7 million students (9% of total)
- Homeschool: 4.6 million students (5.2% of total)
Note: Some students may be counted in multiple categories (e.g., part-time homeschool students enrolled in public school programs)
- Elementary School: Kindergarten/Grade 1 through Grade 5 or 6
- Middle School: Grades 6-8 or 7-8 (also called Junior High in some districts)
- High School: Grades 9-12 (also called Senior High or Secondary School)
Common configuration: 5-3-4 plan (grades 1-5 elementary, 6-8 middle, 9-12 high school)
📅 School Calendar: Traditional school calendars include approximately 180 instructional days per year, with an extended summer break (June-August). About 4% of schools use year-round calendars with shorter, more frequent breaks (popular formats: 45/15, 60/20, 90/30).
Teacher Workforce
The United States employs approximately 3.7 million K-12 teachers across all sectors:
- Public School Teachers: 3.2 million full-time equivalent (FTE) positions
- Private School Teachers: 0.5 million FTE positions
- Teacher Shortages: 74% of public schools reported difficulty filling teaching positions for 2024-25, with approximately 55,000 vacant positions and 270,000 underqualified positions nationwide
- Most Difficult to Fill: Special education, STEM subjects, and bilingual education positions
Graduation Rates
The national average high school graduation rate reached 86.4% for the 2023-24 academic year, up 0.7% from the previous year:
- Highest Rates: Virginia (92.9%), West Virginia (92.6%), Iowa (91.8%)
- Nine states achieved graduation rates of 90% or higher
- Lowest Rate: Washington D.C. (76.1%)
- States under 80%: Alaska, Arizona, New Mexico, and D.C.
🏫 Public School System
The American public school system serves 49.5 million students in PreK-12 (fall 2023), representing the largest sector of K-12 education. Public schools are funded primarily through state and local taxes and must accept all students within their designated attendance zones.
Total Enrollment
49.5 million students
- PreK-Grade 8: 33.9 million
- Grades 9-12: 15.6 million
Number of Schools
Approximately 98,000
- Traditional public schools
- Does not include charter schools
School Districts
13,000+ districts
- Range from small rural (100 students) to large urban (800,000+ students)
Largest School Districts by Enrollment
The largest school districts in the United States serve hundreds of thousands of students across extensive geographic areas:
🥇 New York City Department of Education
859,514 students
- 709 preschools
- 1,064 elementary schools
- 710 middle schools
- 533 high schools
🥈 Los Angeles Unified School District
435,958 students
- 520 elementary schools
- 210 middle schools
- 183 high schools
🥉 Miami-Dade County Public Schools
356,589 students
- Largest in Florida
- Third-largest in the nation
- Chicago Public Schools (IL): 329,836 students
- Clark County School District (NV): 330,000 students, 350+ schools serving Las Vegas area
- Broward County Public Schools (FL): 271,000 students
- Houston Independent School District (TX): 209,000 students
- Orange County Public Schools (FL): 212,000 students
- Hillsborough County Public Schools (FL): 220,000 students
- Dallas Independent School District (TX): 145,000 students
- Philadelphia School District (PA): 200,000+ students
Enrollment Trends
⚠️ Declining Enrollment: Public school enrollment decreased by 0.2% from fall 2022 to fall 2023, and is down 2.5% from pre-pandemic levels (fall 2019). Traditional district schools lost approximately 1.75 million students between 2019-2024, primarily due to declining birth rates, demographic shifts, and increased enrollment in charter schools and homeschooling.
📈 Charter Schools
Charter schools are publicly funded schools that operate independently of traditional school districts under a contract (charter) with a state, district, or other authorizing body. They offer flexibility in curriculum and instruction while maintaining accountability for student outcomes.
Total Enrollment
3.8 million students
All-time high, 7.5% of public school students
Annual Growth
+80,000 students
Year-over-year increase (2023-24)
Five-Year Growth
+492,210 students
14.69% increase (2019-2024)
States with Growth
41 of 43 states
Reporting enrollment increases
Key Characteristics
- Tuition-Free: Charter schools are public schools and do not charge tuition
- Open Enrollment: Must accept students regardless of location within their service area
- Lottery Admissions: If applications exceed capacity, schools typically use random lottery selection
- Autonomy: Greater flexibility in curriculum, instruction, staffing, and budget decisions
- Accountability: Must meet performance standards outlined in their charter or face closure
- No Religious Affiliation: Cannot be affiliated with religious institutions
Demographic Trends
Charter schools serve diverse student populations, with significant growth among specific demographics:
- Hispanic Students: Fastest-growing demographic, increasing 14% since 2019 (18 times faster than district schools)
- Black Students: Significant enrollment gains, with charter schools often serving higher percentages than district schools
- Urban Areas: Charter schools are concentrated in urban communities, addressing demand for alternative educational options
✅ Only Growing Sector: Charter schools represent the only segment of public education experiencing consistent enrollment growth post-pandemic, while traditional district schools have lost approximately 1.75 million students since 2019.
🎓 Private Schools
Private schools are independently funded institutions that charge tuition and operate outside the public school system. They account for approximately 10% of K-12 enrollment nationwide and offer diverse educational philosophies, religious affiliations, and specialized programs.
Total Enrollment
4.7 million students
Approximately 10% of K-12 students
Number of Schools
30,000+ schools
Includes religious and secular institutions
Teachers
0.5 million FTE
Full-time equivalent positions
Types of Private Schools
✝️ Catholic Schools
1.7 million students (35% of private school enrollment)
- 5,905 schools nationwide (2023-24)
- Enrollment by State: California (186,199), New York (124,638), Ohio (119,285)
- Stability: 0.0% change from 2022-23 to 2023-24
- PreK Enrollment: 10.1% of total Catholic school students
🕌 Other Religious Schools
2.0 million students (42% of private school enrollment)
- Christian (various denominations)
- Jewish (Conservative, Orthodox, Reform)
- Islamic schools
- Lutheran, Episcopal, Quaker schools
- Growth: Increased from 1.7 million (2011) to 2.0 million (2021)
🏫 Nonsectarian/Independent Schools
1.1 million students (23% of private school enrollment)
- Independent Schools: Non-profit institutions governed by boards of trustees
- Montessori Schools: Child-centered educational philosophy
- Waldorf Schools: Holistic, developmental approach
- Progressive Schools: Student-directed learning
- Special Education/Therapeutic: Schools for students with specific learning needs
- College Preparatory: Rigorous academic programs focused on college admission
Growth Trend: Nonsectarian enrollment increased from 0.9 million (2011) to 1.1 million (2021)
States with Highest Private School Enrollment Percentage
Private school enrollment varies significantly by state, with some states showing much higher rates of private school attendance:
- Hawaii: Highest percentage of K-12 students in private schools
- Delaware, Louisiana: High private school enrollment rates
- Mid-Atlantic States: Generally higher private school participation (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania)
- Urban Areas: Major cities typically have robust private school sectors
💡 Tuition Range: Private school tuition varies widely, from $5,000-$15,000 annually for many religious schools to $30,000-$50,000+ for elite independent day schools and $60,000-$80,000+ for boarding schools.
🏠 Homeschooling
Homeschooling involves parents or guardians taking primary responsibility for their children's education at home rather than enrolling them in public or private schools. The homeschool population has grown significantly, particularly since the COVID-19 pandemic.
Total Homeschoolers
4.2-4.6 million students
5.2-7.6% of school-age children
Pre-Pandemic Rate
3.3%
Homeschool rate before 2020
Peak Pandemic Rate
11%
Highest rate during COVID-19
Current Rate
5.2-7.6%
Still elevated from pre-pandemic
States with Highest Homeschool Rates
- Alaska: 15% (up from 10% in 2023)
- Delaware: Over 10%
- North Carolina: Over 10%
- Alabama: Over 10%
- Arkansas: Over 10%
- Montana: Over 10%
- California: 547,561 homeschoolers (13% of national total)
- Texas: 440,666 homeschoolers (10.5% of national total)
- New York: 220,990 homeschoolers (5.3% of national total)
- Florida: Significant homeschool population
- Georgia: Large homeschool community
State Regulation Levels
Homeschool regulations vary significantly by state, from minimal oversight to extensive requirements:
Requirements typically include: notice to state, mandated subjects, standardized assessments
- New York: Annual instruction plan, quarterly reports, annual assessment
- Pennsylvania: Annual evaluation, portfolio review, standardized testing
- Massachusetts: Prior approval from local school district required
- Rhode Island: Prior approval from local school district required
- Vermont: Enrollment notice, annual assessment
Moderate oversight typically includes: notification, some subject requirements, occasional testing
States: Maine, New Hampshire, Washington, Oregon, North Dakota, Minnesota, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Hawaii, Ohio
Little to no state oversight; parents have maximum flexibility
States: Texas, Florida, Idaho, Alaska, Oklahoma, Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, New Jersey, Connecticut
These states typically do not require notification, testing, or curriculum approval
Growth Trends (2023-24)
📈 Continued Growth: Of 21 states reporting data for 2023-24, 90% showed enrollment increases. Delaware saw the largest increase (29%), while Georgia had a modest 2% increase. Only two states reported declines.
📖 Curriculum Standards
Curriculum standards define what students should know and be able to do at each grade level. While education is primarily a state responsibility, the Common Core State Standards Initiative aimed to create consistent expectations across states.
Common Core State Standards (CCSS)
The Common Core State Standards, developed in 2010, establish learning expectations for English Language Arts and Mathematics. As of 2024:
✅ States That Adopted Common Core
41 states, DC, 4 territories, and DoDEA have adopted the Common Core State Standards
Includes most states, though some have made modifications or renamed the standards
❌ States That Never Adopted
- Virginia
- Texas
- Alaska
- Nebraska
States That Withdrew from Common Core
- Arizona: Replaced with Arizona Academic Standards
- Oklahoma: Returned to state-specific standards
- Indiana: Developed Indiana Academic Standards
- South Carolina: Created SC College and Career Ready Standards
- Idaho: Replaced Common Core in 2022
- Florida: Implemented B.E.S.T. Standards (Benchmarks For Excellent Student Thinking) in 2021-2023
🔄 Special Case - Minnesota: Minnesota was unique in partially adopting Common Core from the start, using only the English Language Arts standards while developing its own mathematics standards.
Beyond Common Core: State Standards
Many states that "repealed" Common Core adopted standards that are substantially similar or aligned with Common Core expectations. States develop standards for subjects beyond ELA and Math, including:
- Science: Many states have adopted Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) or developed state-specific science standards
- Social Studies: State-specific standards covering history, civics, geography, and economics
- Arts: Visual arts, music, dance, and theater standards
- Physical Education & Health: Fitness and wellness standards
- Technology: Computer science and digital literacy standards
- World Languages: Foreign language proficiency standards
Curriculum Adoption Process
States use two primary approaches for textbook and curriculum adoption:
- Adoption States: State-level review and approval of textbooks/materials (common in Southern states)
- Open Territory States: Local districts select materials independently
- Major Adoption States: Texas, California, and Florida (large markets that influence national textbook content)
✅ Testing & Accountability
Standardized testing is a cornerstone of K-12 accountability systems, measuring student achievement and school performance. Under the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), all states must administer annual assessments in specific grades and subjects.
Reading/Language Arts & Math
- Grades 3-8: Annual testing
- High School: Once (typically grade 11)
Science
- Grades 3-5: At least once
- Grades 6-9: At least once
- Grades 10-12: At least once
Participation
At least 95% of students must participate, including students with disabilities and English learners
State Assessments by State (Selected Examples)
- Alabama: Scantron Performance Series (March)
- Alaska: Performance Evaluation for Alaska's Schools (PEAKS) (March-April)
- Florida: Florida Standards Assessments (FSA) / Florida Assessment of Student Thinking (FAST) (April-May)
- Georgia: Georgia Milestones Assessment (April)
- Kansas: Kansas Assessment Program (KAP) (March-May)
- Kentucky: Kentucky Performance Rating for Educational Progress (K-PREP) (March-June)
- Louisiana: Louisiana Educational Assessment Program (LEAP) (April-May)
- Maine: Maine Educational Assessment (MEA) (March-June)
- West Virginia: West Virginia General Summative Assessment (WVGSA)
- Wisconsin: Wisconsin Forward Exam (March-May)
Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC)
Used by: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Idaho, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia
Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC)
Formerly used by many states; most have transitioned to state-specific assessments or SBAC. A few states still use PARCC-based tests.
High School Exit Exams
The number of states requiring exit exams for graduation has declined significantly. As of 2024:
Only 8 states require graduation exams for the class of 2023:
- Florida: End-of-Course (EOC) exams
- Illinois: SAT
- Louisiana: End-of-Course assessments
- Massachusetts: MCAS (Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System)
- New York: Regents Exams
- Texas: State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR) End-of-Course
- Virginia: Standards of Learning (SOL) End-of-Course tests
- Wyoming: Required assessments for graduation
📉 Declining Trend: The number of states requiring exit exams has fallen from over half of states in 2002 to just 8 states in 2023, the lowest count since the mid-1990s.
College Entrance Exams as State Assessments
Many states have adopted the SAT or ACT as their high school assessment:
Students take the SAT at no cost during 11th grade:
- Maine
- West Virginia
- Illinois
- Connecticut
- Delaware
- Michigan (varies by district)
Students take the ACT at no cost during 11th grade:
- Alabama (ACT + Writing)
- Kentucky
- Louisiana
- Wisconsin (ACT + Writing)
- North Carolina
- Nebraska
- Montana
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
The NAEP, known as "The Nation's Report Card," provides the only nationally representative assessment of student achievement:
- Subjects: Reading, Mathematics, Science, Writing, and other subjects on a rotating basis
- Grades: Grades 4, 8, and 12
- Sampling: Representative sample of students in each state (not every student)
- No Stakes: Results are not used for student grades, graduation, or school accountability
- State Comparisons: Allows performance comparisons across states
2024 NAEP Results - Key Findings
⚠️ Concerning Trends:- Scores Below 2019: National scores in reading and math remain below pre-pandemic levels for all tested grades
- No State Gains in Reading: No state saw significant reading improvements in 4th or 8th grade compared to 2022
- 8th Grade Reading: 33% of 8th graders are not reading at the NAEP Basic level (highest percentage ever)
- Achievement Gaps Growing: Gaps between higher-performing and lower-performing students continue widening
- Regional Declines: Delaware (-14 points in 8th grade math) and New Mexico (-13 points) saw significant drops
✅ Bright Spots:- 4th Grade Math: 13 states, DC, Puerto Rico, and 14 urban districts saw gains compared to 2022
- Mississippi: Regained 10 percentage points in 4th grade math proficiency since 2022
- Atlanta Public Schools: Only jurisdiction with significant 4th grade reading gains vs. 2022
- Texas: 4th graders continue performing better than national average in mathematics
🎯 School Choice Programs
School choice programs provide families with alternatives to traditional assigned public schools, including charter schools, private school tuition assistance, magnet schools, and homeschooling. Programs vary significantly by state.
States with Programs
34 states + DC + Puerto Rico
Offer some type of choice program
Universal Programs
12 states
All students eligible regardless of income
2024 Expansion
10 states
Improved or expanded programs in 2024
Program Types
3 Main Categories
Vouchers, ESAs, Tax Credit Scholarships
Types of School Choice Programs
Vouchers provide public funds that parents can use toward private school tuition. Funding typically goes directly to the school or is reimbursed to families.
Examples:
- Wisconsin Parental Choice Program: One of the oldest voucher programs (since 1990)
- Florida Tax Credit Scholarship: Large-scale voucher program
- Indiana Choice Scholarship Program: Income-based vouchers for private schools
- Louisiana Scholarship Program: For students from failing schools or low-income families
ESAs deposit public education funds into accounts that parents control. Funds can be used for multiple educational expenses including:
- Private school tuition
- Online learning programs
- Tutoring services
- Textbooks and curriculum materials
- Educational therapies
- College savings (in some states)
New Universal ESA Programs in 2024:
- Alabama CHOOSE Act: Initially for families earning ≤300% of federal poverty level ($93,600 for family of four), expanding to all students
- Louisiana LA GATOR Scholarship: Statewide ESA program
Individuals or businesses receive tax credits for donations to scholarship-granting organizations (SGOs), which then provide scholarships to students for private school tuition.
Examples:
- Arizona: Multiple tax credit programs, including individual and corporate credits
- Florida: Florida Tax Credit Scholarship Program (one of the largest)
- Pennsylvania: Educational Improvement Tax Credit (EITC) and Opportunity Scholarship Tax Credit (OSTC)
States Expanding School Choice in 2024
Ten states took action to improve, expand, or create new school choice programs in 2024:
- Alabama: Created CHOOSE Act ESA program
- Florida: Expanded existing scholarship programs
- Georgia: Created ESA program for students in lowest-performing 25% of schools (SB 233)
- Louisiana: Established LA GATOR Scholarship ESA program
- Mississippi: Enhanced existing programs
- Missouri: Expanded eligibility for existing programs
- Nebraska: Implemented opportunity scholarship tax credit program
- Oklahoma: Broadened school choice options
- South Carolina: Enhanced Education Scholarship Trust Fund
- Wyoming: Created ESA program with $6,000 for families earning ≤150% of federal poverty limit
Magnet Schools
Magnet schools are public schools with specialized curricula designed to attract students from across district boundaries. They offer:
- STEM/STEAM Focus: Science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics programs emphasizing innovation and critical thinking
- Performing Arts: Theater, music, dance, and film programs
- Visual Arts: Painting, sculpture, graphic design, and multimedia arts
- International Baccalaureate (IB): Globally recognized rigorous curriculum
- Language Immersion: Dual-language or world language programs
- Career/Technical: Career-focused programs in healthcare, engineering, business, etc.
- Classical Education: Latin, classical literature, and traditional liberal arts
💡 Admission: Magnet schools are tuition-free public schools. When applications exceed capacity, most use random lottery selection, though some may have academic or audition requirements for specialized programs.
♿ Special Education
Special education provides individualized instruction and support services for students with disabilities under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Schools must provide a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) for all eligible students.
Students Served
7.5 million
All-time high, ages 3-21
Percentage of Students
15% of enrollment
Up from 13% in 2012-13
Growth Rate
+3% since 2019-20
Continued enrollment increases
10-Year Growth
+1.1 million students
From 6.4M (2012-13) to 7.5M
Disability Categories
Students receive special education services under 13 federal disability categories. The most common categories are:
- Specific Learning Disabilities: 32% of special education students
- Autism Spectrum Disorder: 13%
- Developmental Delay: 7% (primarily ages 3-9)
- Intellectual Disability: 6%
- Emotional Disturbance: 4%
- Speech or Language Impairment
- Other Health Impairment (includes ADHD)
- Multiple Disabilities
- Hearing Impairment/Deafness
- Orthopedic Impairment
- Visual Impairment/Blindness
- Traumatic Brain Injury
- Deaf-Blindness
Demographic Patterns
Special education identification rates vary by race/ethnicity (2022-23):
- Highest Rates: American Indian/Alaska Native (19%), Black (17%)
- National Average: White (15%)
- Below Average: Hispanic (14%), Pacific Islander (12%)
- Lowest Rate: Asian (8%)
Key Components of Special Education
A legally binding document developed for each student receiving special education services, including:
- Present levels of academic and functional performance
- Measurable annual goals
- Special education services and related services (speech therapy, occupational therapy, etc.)
- Accommodations and modifications
- Participation in state and district assessments
- Transition planning (beginning at age 16 or younger)
IDEA requires that students with disabilities be educated with non-disabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate. Placement options include:
- General education classroom: Full inclusion with support
- Resource room: Part-time specialized instruction
- Separate classroom: Specialized instruction for majority of day
- Separate school: For students requiring intensive services
- Residential facility: For students needing 24-hour support
- Homebound/hospital: For students unable to attend school
⚠️ Teacher Shortage: Special education positions remain the most difficult teaching positions to fill nationwide. Many districts report significant shortages of qualified special education teachers, speech-language pathologists, and school psychologists.
Federal Funding (IDEA)
The federal government provides funding to states through IDEA Part B (school-age students) and Part C (infants and toddlers). However, federal funding typically covers only a fraction of the actual cost of special education services, with states and local districts providing the majority of funding.
🌟 Gifted & Talented Programs
Gifted and talented education serves students who demonstrate high achievement or potential in intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership areas. Unlike special education, there is no federal mandate for gifted education, resulting in significant variation across states.
📌 Important Note: There are no federal requirements to fund gifted and talented programming. Most individual states mandate identification, but funding and program requirements vary significantly.
State Requirements by Example
Texas:
- Mandates identification and services
- Requires teacher training in gifted education
- Students must show high performance or potential in intellectual, creative, or artistic areas
New Jersey:
- Requires K-12 identification process using multiple measures
- Strengthening Gifted and Talented Education Act mandates ongoing identification
Iowa:
- School boards must submit annual program plans
- Must include student identification criteria and procedures
- Budget costs submitted to Department of Education
New York:
- No state requirement for gifted programs
- Part 117 requires screening of new entrants for possible giftedness
- Local districts decide whether to offer programs
South Carolina, Kentucky, others:
- Requirements for identification procedures
- May specify categories of giftedness to screen
- Varying levels of state funding support
Categories of Giftedness
States that mandate gifted identification typically recognize multiple categories:
- General Intellectual Aptitude: High cognitive ability across multiple areas
- Specific Academic Aptitude: Exceptional ability in particular subjects (math, reading, science)
- Creative or Divergent Thinking: Exceptional creativity and problem-solving
- Leadership: Exceptional leadership skills and social influence
- Visual or Performing Arts: Exceptional artistic or performance abilities
Identification Process
Most states requiring gifted identification mandate multiple measures, which may include:
- Standardized achievement tests
- IQ/cognitive ability tests
- Teacher recommendations
- Parent recommendations
- Student portfolios
- Creativity assessments
- Performance-based assessments
- Classroom observations
- Grades and academic performance
- Auditions (for arts programs)
Program Models
Gifted programs vary widely in structure and delivery:
- Pull-Out Programs: Students leave regular classroom for enrichment activities
- Cluster Grouping: Groups of gifted students placed together in regular classrooms
- Differentiated Instruction: Modified curriculum within general education classroom
- Self-Contained Classrooms: Full-time gifted education classrooms
- Magnet Schools: Specialized schools for gifted students
- Advanced Placement (AP): College-level courses for high school students
- International Baccalaureate (IB): Internationally recognized rigorous curriculum
- Dual Enrollment: High school students taking college courses
- Independent Study: Self-directed learning projects
- Grade Acceleration: Moving students ahead one or more grades
⚠️ Equity Concerns: Gifted program enrollment often does not reflect the demographic diversity of the overall student population. Many states and districts are working to address underrepresentation of minority students, economically disadvantaged students, and English learners in gifted programs through improved identification methods and universal screening.
💰 School Funding
K-12 education funding in the United States comes primarily from state and local sources, with the federal government contributing a smaller portion. Per-pupil spending varies dramatically by state, ranging from under $10,000 to over $30,000 per student annually.
Average Per-Pupil
$15,633
Up 8.9% from FY 2021
State Funding
43.7%
$383.9 billion total
Local Funding
42.7%
$375.2 billion (primarily property taxes)
Federal Funding
13.6%
$119.1 billion
Per-Pupil Spending by State (FY 2022)
- New York: $29,873 per pupil
- District of Columbia: $27,425 per pupil
- New Jersey: $25,099 per pupil
- Vermont: $24,608 per pupil
- Connecticut: $24,453 per pupil
- Massachusetts: High spending (over $20,000)
- Wyoming: High spending (over $20,000)
- Utah: $9,552 per pupil
- Idaho: $9,670 per pupil
- Arizona: $10,315 per pupil
- Oklahoma: $10,890 per pupil
- Mississippi: $10,984 per pupil
- North Carolina: Under $11,000 per pupil
- Nevada: Under $11,500 per pupil
📊 Regional Patterns: Seven of nine Northeastern states ranked among the top 10 in per-pupil spending, while 16 of the 20 lowest-spending states were in the South or West regions.
Major Federal Funding Programs
Largest federal K-12 program, providing supplemental funding for schools serving low-income students
- Annual Funding: Approximately $18 billion (FY 2024)
- Students Served: Over 25 million students (about half of all public school students)
- Schools Eligible: 63% of traditional public schools, 62% of charter schools (2021-22)
- Allocation Method: Based on Census Bureau poverty estimates for school districts
- Uses: Additional teachers, professional development, extended learning time, family engagement
- Part B: Special education for school-age children (3-21)
- Part C: Early intervention for infants and toddlers (0-2)
- Note: Federal funding covers only a portion of special education costs; states and local districts provide majority of funding
- Title II: Teacher quality and professional development
- Title III: English language acquisition for English learners
- Title IV: Student support and academic enrichment
- Child Nutrition Programs: School breakfast and lunch programs
- Impact Aid: For districts with federal properties
State Funding Mechanisms
States use various formulas to distribute education funding, typically combining:
- Foundation Formulas: Base per-pupil amount guaranteed by state
- Weighted Student Formulas: Additional funding for students with greater needs (poverty, disabilities, English learners)
- Categorical Funding: Designated for specific purposes (transportation, facilities, special programs)
- Equalization Formulas: Adjustments based on local property wealth to reduce inequities
Local Funding Sources
Local districts raise revenue primarily through:
- Property Taxes: Primary local revenue source (varies by property values)
- Local Sales Taxes: In some states
- Income Taxes: Rare, but used in some localities
- Parcel Taxes: Flat fees per property in some districts
⚠️ Funding Inequities: Significant funding disparities exist between wealthy and poor districts, particularly in states heavily reliant on local property taxes. Some states face ongoing litigation over school funding equity and adequacy.
Recent Trends
- Post-Pandemic Increase: FY 2022 saw the largest year-over-year increase in per-pupil spending in over 20 years (8.9%), partially due to federal pandemic relief funds
- ESSER Funds: Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief funds provided temporary federal support during COVID-19 (now expiring)
- Teacher Salary Increases: Many states raising minimum teacher salaries and providing bonuses to address shortages
🔧 Educational Resources
Comprehensive collection of resources for students, teachers, and parents to support K-12 education.
- eNotes: High-quality study guides, lesson plans, and reference materials across academic subjects
- NASA Education: STEM lesson plans, activities, and resources for all grade levels
- Teachers Pay Teachers: Marketplace for teacher-created resources
- Lesson Planet: Searchable database of lesson plans and teaching resources
- Edmentum: Online learning and assessment solutions (formerly Plato)
- IXL Learning: Personalized learning in math, language arts, science, and social studies
- Renaissance Learning: Assessment and practice tools including AR and STAR
- Prodigy Math: Game-based math learning platform
Government & Educational Organizations
Assessment & College Preparation
❓ Frequently Asked Questions
Approximately 54.1 million students are enrolled in K-12 education (2024-25 school year), distributed as follows:
- Public Schools: 49.5 million students (80% of total enrollment)
- Public Charter Schools: 3.8 million students (7%)
- Private Schools: 4.7 million students (9%)
- Homeschool: 4.6 million students (5.2%)
Note: Some students may be counted in multiple categories (e.g., part-time homeschool students also enrolled in public school courses).
Public Schools:
- Funded by taxpayer dollars (federal, state, and local)
- Must accept all students within designated attendance zones
- Governed by elected school boards and must follow state curriculum standards
- No tuition charged
Charter Schools:
- Publicly funded but independently operated under a charter contract
- Open to all students (often use lottery if oversubscribed)
- Greater autonomy in curriculum and operations than traditional public schools
- Must meet performance standards or risk charter revocation
- No tuition charged
Private Schools:
- Funded primarily through tuition and private donations
- Can set their own admission requirements
- Not required to follow state curriculum standards
- May have religious affiliations
- Charge tuition (typically $5,000-$50,000+ annually)
As of 2024, 41 states, the District of Columbia, four territories, and the Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA) have adopted the Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts and Mathematics.
States that NEVER adopted Common Core:
- Virginia
- Texas
- Alaska
- Nebraska
States that WITHDREW from Common Core:
- Arizona
- Oklahoma
- Indiana
- South Carolina
- Idaho (replaced in 2022)
- Florida (replaced with B.E.S.T. Standards in 2021-2023)
Special Case: Minnesota partially adopted Common Core, using only the English Language Arts standards while developing its own mathematics standards.
Under the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), all states must administer annual assessments in:
- Reading/Language Arts & Math: Grades 3-8 annually, plus once in high school
- Science: At least once in grades 3-5, 6-9, and 10-12
Common State Assessment Systems:
- Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC): Used by 15+ states including California, Washington, Oregon
- State-Specific Tests: Many states have developed their own assessments (e.g., Florida Standards Assessments, Georgia Milestones, Texas STAAR)
High School Exit Exams:
Only 8 states require graduation exams: Florida, Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, New York, Texas, Virginia, and Wyoming
College Entrance Exams:
- Many states require all 11th graders to take the SAT or ACT at no cost
- NAEP (Nation's Report Card): Sample-based assessment for national and state comparisons (no individual student scores)
The national average per-pupil spending for public K-12 education was $15,633 in FY 2022, an 8.9% increase from the previous year (the largest annual increase in over 20 years).
Spending varies dramatically by state:
- Highest: New York ($29,873), District of Columbia ($27,425), New Jersey ($25,099)
- Lowest: Utah ($9,552), Idaho ($9,670), Arizona ($10,315)
Funding Sources:
- State governments: 43.7% ($383.9 billion)
- Local sources: 42.7% ($375.2 billion, primarily property taxes)
- Federal government: 13.6% ($119.1 billion)
School choice programs provide families with alternatives to traditional assigned public schools. As of 2024, 34 states plus DC and Puerto Rico offer some type of school choice program.
Types of Programs:
- Vouchers: Public funds for private school tuition (23 programs in 13 states + DC)
- Education Savings Accounts (ESAs): Flexible accounts for multiple educational expenses (17 programs in 14 states)
- Tax Credit Scholarships: Tax credits for donations to scholarship organizations (25 programs in 21 states)
Universal School Choice States (all students eligible):
12 states now offer universal programs, including Arizona, Florida, Iowa, Arkansas, West Virginia, and others.
States Expanding in 2024:
- Alabama (new CHOOSE Act ESA)
- Louisiana (new LA GATOR Scholarship)
- Georgia (ESA for lowest-performing schools)
- Wyoming (ESA for low-income families)
- Plus 6 other states that expanded existing programs
In the 2022-23 school year, 7.5 million students ages 3-21 received special education and/or related services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), representing an all-time high and 15% of all public school students.
Most Common Disability Categories:
- Specific Learning Disabilities: 32% of special education students
- Autism Spectrum Disorder: 13%
- Developmental Delay: 7%
- Intellectual Disability: 6%
- Emotional Disturbance: 4%
Growth Trends:
- Special education enrollment has increased from 6.4 million (2012-13) to 7.5 million (2022-23)
- As a percentage of total enrollment, special education has grown from 13% to 15%
- Enrollment increased 3% from 2019-20 to 2022-23 despite overall public school enrollment declines
Approximately 4.2-4.6 million students (5.2-7.6% of school-age children) are homeschooled in the United States. Requirements vary significantly by state:
High Regulation States:
- New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Vermont
- Requirements: Notice to state, mandated subjects, standardized assessments, annual evaluations
- Massachusetts and Rhode Island require prior approval from local school districts
Moderate Regulation States:
- Maine, New Hampshire, Washington, Oregon, North Dakota, Minnesota, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Hawaii, Ohio
- Requirements: Notification, some subject requirements, occasional testing
Low/No Regulation States:
- Texas, Florida, Idaho, Alaska, Oklahoma, Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, New Jersey, Connecticut
- Requirements: Little to no oversight; no notification, testing, or curriculum approval required
Highest Homeschool Rates: Alaska (15%), Delaware, North Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas, and Montana (all over 10%)
Title I, Part A is the largest federal K-12 education program, providing supplemental funding to schools serving high concentrations of low-income students.
Program Overview:
- Annual Funding: Approximately $18 billion (FY 2024)
- Students Served: Over 25 million students (about half of all public school students)
- Schools Eligible: 63% of traditional public schools and 62% of charter schools (2021-22)
Allocation Method:
- Allocations to states and districts based on Census Bureau poverty estimates
- Within-district allocations based on school poverty rates, often measured by free/reduced-price lunch eligibility
Allowed Uses:
- Additional teachers and instructional staff
- Professional development
- Extended learning time (afterschool, summer programs)
- Family engagement activities
- Instructional materials and technology
Charter schools are experiencing strong growth and represent the only sector of public education with consistent enrollment increases.
2024-25 Enrollment:
- 3.8 million students enrolled in charter schools (all-time high)
- Represents 7.5% of all public school students
- +80,000 students added in 2023-24 school year alone
Five-Year Growth (2019-2024):
- Charter enrollment increased by 492,210 students (14.69%)
- 41 of 43 states with charter schools reported enrollment increases
- Traditional district schools lost approximately 1.75 million students during the same period
Demographic Trends:
- Hispanic students are the fastest-growing demographic, increasing 14% since 2019
- Hispanic enrollment growing 18 times faster in charter schools than district schools
- Significant gains in Black student enrollment
- Growth concentrated in urban areas